Wreckreation: Off Road/All-Terrain Vehicles and Their Impact on the Environment by Kirsten Anderberg
Wreckreation: Off Road/All-Terrain Vehicles and Their Impact on the Environment
By Kirsten Anderberg (www.kirstenanderberg.com)
Written April 21, 2008
There are 36 million registered All-Terrain Vehicles (ATM's), also called Off-Road Vehicles
(ORV's), and 12 million registered snowmobiles in the U.S. And nearly 93 percent of the 262
million acres of public land in the U.S. West and Alaska managed by the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) is open to some form of off-road vehicle activity. More than 400,000 "ghost
roads" have been carved into the American wilderness by these vehicles, and only 2 forests, the
Hoosier in Indiana and the Monongahela in West Virginia, do not allow off-road vehicle use.
The prolific usage of these off-road vehicles as a source of recreation is a major source of air,
soil, and water pollution. These motorized vehicles disturb wildlife habitat and natural
vegetation, and destroy national monuments, parks, forests, deserts, and even archaeological
sites. In Yellowstone National Park, 68% of the Park's annual carbon monoxide pollution is from
snowmobiles and at Yellowstone's west entrance, Park rangers now wear respirators and hearing
protection in the winter to reduce their exposure to toxic snowmobile exhaust and harmful noise.
In Canyonlands National Park, dirt bikes and ATV's polluted the Park's only clear perennial s
stream by repeatedly driving through it
(http://www.wilderness.org/OurIssues/ORV/threats.cfm?TopLevel=Threats, April 20, 2008).
According to the California Air Resources Board, ORV's can produce 118 times as many smog-
forming pollutants than automobiles (http://www.bluewaternetwork.org, April 18, 2008). For
these reasons and more, there needs to be increased accountability on the part of public land
management, an education of the public on the issue's relevance to "going green," and a future-
looking collaboration between the government, the public, and private organizations to secure
our wilderness areas from the ravages of motorized vehicles.
The Impact on Wildlife
ORV's affect wildlife on many levels. These motorized vehicles not only kill animals by
running over them, but they also create noise which disturbs the animals, and they destroy and
alter the habitat the animals rely on and live in. Panthers, bears, elk, mule deer, desert tortoises,
lizards, and more, have shown negative reactions to motorized off-road vehicles in their habitat.
Elk avoid ATV trails in the exact same way they avoid regular roads with motorized traffic, and
elk began moving when ATV's were 2000 yards away yet tolerated hikers within 500 yards,
horseback riders within 800 yards, and bicycles within 1300 yards without moving. Additionally,
elk tend to run from ATV's but walk away from hikers unless startled at close range. In a similar
manner, lizards in Idaho were found in higher numbers 25 m from a less intensively used ORV
trail than at 2 m from the trail. Yet in a more intensively used area of trail, there were more
lizards within 2 m of the trail than at 25 m from the trail. Scientists have determined that lizards
have trouble moving through dense cheatgrass, a non-native plant which grows more readily
along ORV trails, thus the lizards use the road as a trail. Male flat-tailed horned lizards in CA
seem to move slower after disturbances from off-road vehicles, and they also are very
susceptible to being run over by the vehicles as they often walk on the ORV trails. Colorado
studies have shown that elk move twice as far away from an ATV disturbance than a single
pedestrian disturbance
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/files/uploads/PDFs/Final_ORV_Petition_revised.pdf, April 18,
2008).
Bears are also affected. In her article, "Why the Bear Didn't Cross the Road," (Spring 2008),
Shannon Donahue writes, "The primary factors associated with roads that affect bears are habitat
loss and fragmentation, direct traffic-related and railroad mortality, habituation to humans and
food-conditioning, and increased susceptibility to hunting and poaching due to better access for
humans and loss of wariness in bears. Increased awareness of the negative effects of roads on
bear habitat has compelled some agencies to close and decommission roads to improve bear
habitat." Donahue (2008) notes often bears will use roads at night when they have less traffic,
but then are hit by trains. "Bears often use the railroad as a movement corridor, and grain spills
act as a further attractant." Donahue (2008) also notes that all human-caused grizzly bear
mortality in and around Banff and Yoho National Parks between 1971 and 1998 occurred along
roads, trails, or around human settlements. Therefore many recommend that open roads in
grizzly bear territory be used only by forestry staff. Donahue (2008) says that defense of life and
property is also a significant source of bear mortality, and the number of brown bear deaths
killed in defense of life and property rises with road density (http://www.wildlandscpr.org/biblio-
notes/why-didnt-bear-cross-road-review-recent-literature-examining-effects-roads-bears, April
18, 2008).
Threats to Vegetation
Off-road vehicles damage vegetation by trampling, crushing, and uprooting plants, by
destroying soil composition and compacting soil, and through pollution of the air, soil and water.
Noxious weeds and non-native plants and seeds spread through ORV's as well, and this produces
fewer plants, reduced plant cover, less plant diversity and disruptions to plant health in areas
ORV's gain access to (http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html, April 18, 2008).
Studies conducted in the Algodones Dunes, in CA, showed that there were 4-5 times more plants
in areas not subjected to the presence of ORV's, and it has also been found that uninhabited areas
were refuges for native species, as exotic species are spread easily into areas with previously
only native plants through ORV's. And studies in Idaho have found that native plants were less
prevalent closer to vehicle trails, and that non-native species congregated in larger numbers near
trails used by vehicles. Dune buggies used on sand dunes and beaches are causing displacement
of sand and they destroy dune vegetation, which upsets the fragile dune ecosystem
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/files/uploads/PDFs/Final_ORV_Petition_revised.pdf, April 18,
2008). Another problem is that once an ORV leaves the road, and creates its own trail, that
tempts other ORV's that come afterwards to also take that detour, and in little time a small back
path is a well-traveled road. And once the soil is compacted, and the soil and water is polluted,
the same vegetation cannot return, which opens the area up to noxious weeds and exotic plants,
and interferes with natural biodiversity (http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html, April
18, 2008).
Pollution of Soil
Studies in the Denver, CO region have shown that ORV trails are a large chronic source of
sediment in the watershed, and that ORV trails produce 5 times the mean sediment that other
unpaved roads do. This sediment in the water shed threatens clean drinking water, and healthy
fish populations. Desert soils are especially fragile and are covered by organisms, lichens, and
more, for stability. When these organisms are disrupted by ORV's, the soil is disturbed and it can
take decades or centuries for the soil to recover. Vehicles on soil also compacts the soil, which
reduces its porous nature and increases its density, limiting the soil's ability to transfer water and
other minerals and substances through it
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/files/uploads/PDFs/Final_ORV_Petition_revised.pdf, April 18,
2008). Not only does erosion uproot plants, but it also causes vegetation downslope to get buried
(http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html, April 18, 2008). By altering the composition
of the soil, erosion is accelerated, and plant life is affected, which in turn affects wildlife, water,
and more.
Pollution of Water
Streams are especially vulnerable to pollution from ORV's as these vehicles tend to ford
streams without any thought of the pollution to the water they pass through. Wetlands are
disrupted by jet skis, and ORV's increase sediment and toxic chemicals from fluids in ATV's
contacting water, in water sources when trails and roads are nearby. Studies also suggest that
watersheds with ORV trails through them have higher percentages of sands
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/files/uploads/PDFs/Final_ORV_Petition_revised.pdf, April 19,
2008). Sands in water sources have many impacts, including an impact on fish such as salmon.
Removing roads from watersheds can increase water purity for drinking water, irrigation and
fishing, and the City of Seattle is currently spending $6 million to remove roads rather than
building more water-treatment plants (http://www.wildlandscpr.org/issues, April 18, 2008).
Pollution of Air & Noise Pollution
In Adam Switalski's article, "The Influence of Snowmobile Emissions on Air Quality and
Human Health" (2007), he writes that the levels of air pollution in Yellowstone National Park
often exceed the levels of pollution in downtown Los Angeles, due to snowmobiles in the park.
There is no regulation of snowmobiles regarding air pollution control. Park rangers at
Yellowstone began wearing gas masks due to exposure to this pollution on the job, which
brought national attention to the issue. Snowmobiles became popular in the 1960's, and thus the
destruction from their impact is recent, yet significant. It is shocking but even though
snowmobiles are only 6% of the vehicles that enter Yellowstone Park annually, they are
responsible for 68-98% of the HC emissions and 35-68% of the CO emissions yearly. Emissions
are concentrated in places where many snowmobilers gather and idle their engines, such as in
parking lots and on trails, and people breathe in emission fumes from snowmobiles in front of
them when following others. There is a push for more regulations on snowmobiles regarding
their emissions output, through environmentally friendly fuels and more efficient, less polluting,
modern snowmobile engines (http://www.wildlandscpr.org/biblio-notes/infl-uence-snowmobile-
emissions-air-quality-and-human-health, April 18, 2008). According to Jason Brininstool (2006),
"720 snowmobiles that are currently allowed in Yellowstone National Park each day emit more
carbon monoxide than 5000 on-road vehicles" (http://www.wildlandscpr.org/biblio-notes/off-
road-vehicle-emissions-and-their-effects-human-health, April 18, 2008).
Effects on Hunting
There is consternation among hunters due to the disruption that ORV's cause to hunting
grounds. Not only do ORV's bring more people deeper into wilderness to hunt, but the ORV's
chase away game from not only the area where the ORV is traveling but adjacent areas as well,
affecting hunters in the bush. And as ORV traffic increases in an area, the quality and size of elk
decline (http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html, April 18, 2008).
Archaeology and ORV's
In Red Rock Canyon State Park, studies conducted in 2004-2006 showed that 36
archaeological sites, as well as sensitive plants, animal habitat, and geologic features suffered
damages from the long-lasting scars ORV's leave on the land. The study cited the loss of soil and
vegetation, displacement and damage to artifiacts and the destruction of important geologic
features. Suggested solutions to this destruction includes effective vehicle barriers, closure of
roads, public education, park ranger patrols, monitoring and restoration
(http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24576, April 2008).
Fires
Alberta Canada has done studies investigating the relationship between ATV's and fire
ignition within Alberta's forests. They have released a study and recommendations to reduce
ATV-caused fires in Alberta (http://fire.feric.ca/other/AD-3-44.PDF, April 18, 2008).
Injuries from ORV's
There has been a national outcry from doctors, parents, consumer advocates, pediatricians,
medical professionals, and others, urging legislation to protect children under 16 from the
dangers of adult-sized ORV's. In 2003, there were 125,000 injuries requiring emergency room
treatments from ORV accidents and 621 ORV-related deaths, and kids under 16 consistently
suffered more injuries than other age groups. Dan Rather reported on the CBS Evening News in
May 2004 that serious injuries from ORV's suffered by kids under 16 increased 100% between
1993-2002. The ATV industry itself has been slow to take a voluntary approach to safety, instead
shifting the focus on parental supervision
(http://www.naturaltrails.org/issues/ATVSafety/index.html, April 20, 2008).
Enforcement of Rules
The U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services, and the Federal Bureau of Land
Management have the authority to control off-road vehicles on public lands yet seem to be
dragging their feet, resisting the enforcement of said rules, allowing uncontrolled ORV usage
state to state. The National Parks Department is trying to stop the damage from jet skis and
snowmobiles in its parks, yet they hit many brick walls with the environmental policies of the
Bush administration, fueled by the lobbying interests of the ORV industry
(http://www.wilderness.org/OurIssues/ORV/index.cfm?TopLevel=Home, April 18, 2008). In
December 2007, some hopes for future responsibility came as the U.S. Forest Service did finally
promise to close roads to stem ORV ravages in the Tellico area, to restore water quality
(http://www.peer.org/campaigns/publiclands/orv/news.php, April 18, 2008).
The Sierra Club has posted the following critique on their website: "Unfortunately, whether
it's ATVs in a desert landscape, dirt bikes carving new roads through a National Forest, a jet-ski
buzzing down a quiet stretch of river, or snowmobiles in Yellowstone and Voyageurs National
Park - there are fewer and fewer places where people can go to escape the roar of engines." They
complain that there is an imbalance between land available to ORV's and the amount of land
available to non-motorized users. Indeed, 93% of the land the Bureau of Land Management
controls is open to ORV's and though ORV users are a small percentage of land users, the
impact they leave is disproportionate. The Sierra Club complains, and I fully agree, that one of
the biggest problems with ORV's is they can be heard many miles away and thus they ruin a
wide swath of land for those desiring a quiet time in nature. Just as Wilderness.org (previous
paragraph) complains, the Sierra Club accuses federal agencies of dragging their feet and
irresponsible recreation and land management. (http://www.sierraclub.org/wildlands/orv/, April
17, 2008).
Strategies for Success
The activist organization Wildland CPR has recommended 6 strategies for effective
enforcement of rules regarding ATV's and motorized vehicles in the wild. The recommendations
are based on interviews with public land managers, private landowners, citizen group leaders and
law enforcement officers. Their first recommendation is "make a commitment," noting there
needs to be a commitment to expand enforcement, intensify patrols, seek out new funding, and
have a no tolerance policy regarding damage from ORV's. The second recommendation is to
"lay the groundwork." They suggest the creation of off-road routes with an eye for
enforceability, and cleared marked route systems on maps and on the ground, along with a
system that identifies and/or limits the numbers of OFV's. The third recommendation is to "see
and be seen." Organizing and publicizing volunteer efforts, broad coalitions and collaborations
with the public and law enforcement, and a means for citizen reporting, funding, and publicity
are all mentioned as helpful with this goal. The fourth recommendation is "make riders
responsible." They suggest using mass media campaigns to educate riders, working with off-road
community spokespersons, focusing on common values and the promotion of a peer-enforced
rider responsibility culture. The fifth recommendation is "use the force." This refers to the use of
available technologies that work, such as remote electronic monitoring, and a tracking system to
record trends in noise and repeat offender violations. The last recommendation is "fit the
punishment to the crime." They suggest toughening penalties, assessing actual damage costs with
regards to fines, community service as punishment, impounding vehicles, and the most important
in my opinion, taking away other recreational privileges for off-road violations
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/Reports/EnforcementReport.html, April 18, 2008).
Wildlands CPR has also published a "Guide for Designating and Managing Off-Road Vehicle
Routes." The guide is "designed as a resource for public land management agency staff, law
enforcement officials, and citizens groups, (and) this document outlines Best Management
Practices (BMPs) to aid land managers in travel planning or in any decision-making process
related to off-road vehicle management on forested lands." They created these guidelines to fill
a void of Best Management Practices applied to off-road vehicles in forestlands. Wildlands CPR
writes, "These BMPs, based on the best available scientific knowledge, fill this gap of forestland
off-road vehicle management, and covers the following topics: Laws and Regulations for off-
road vehicles, Forest Soils, Vegetation, Wildlife, Special Ecosystems, Use Conflicts, and
Research Needs" (http://www.wildlandscpr.org/our-news/wildlands-cpr-finishes-best-
management-practices-orv-use-forests, April 18, 2008).
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is a U.S. federal agency that manages more than
264 million acres of federal land, mostly in the Western states and Alaska. They regulate open
spaces for public uses that include recreation, livestock uses, mining, and cultural conservation.
The BLM has published a "National Management Strategy" for motorized vehicle use. The
strategy claims to balance interests of ORV riders and "environmentally sensitive areas on public
lands," yet the wording seems to be trying to avoid action, as what land wouldn't be
"environmentally sensitive?" All places on earth are "environmentally sensitive!" So to say they
are trying to balance ORV activity with "environmentally sensitive" land makes it sound like
they are trying to create some subset of land to protect, rather than acknowledging the wide
scope of the problem. The BLM strategy presents recommendations to land management about
creating dispute resolution frameworks for ORV issues, and also suggests the use of signs and
maps and designated ORV areas, off-road regulations, law enforcement, public education, and
wilderness restoration programs. The BLM repeatedly uses wording that seems to be appeasing
the ORV community/industry, such as clarifying that the BLM acknowledges off-road vehicle
activity as "acceptable activity on public lands whenever compatible with the Bureau's resource
management objectives…" and "the BLM is required to manage the public lands in a way that
accommodates multiple uses while protecting public land resources." The BLM goes on to say
they believe that "implementing actions in this strategy will help promote balance between these
sometimes competing principles." This BLM strategy also stresses that the BLM cannot change
laws, fines, or penalties for ORV activities and says that responsibility lies with public officials
and legislators, the same parties responsible for earmarking funding for enforcement of said rules
by the BLM. The BLM stresses they can only enforce as much as is funded.
The Bureau of Land Management also has released a paper that says, "Uncontrolled use is the
most immediate and pervasive threat to cultural resources on BLM lands" then they begin to
extol their virtues due to "the freedom experienced by visitors because of the lack of restrictions
that are placed on them" on BLM land. The BLM also comments that BLM lands are becoming
more accessible and even being used as "recreational backyards." The BLM writes, "This
increased visitation inevitably results in intentional and inadvertent damage through collection,
vandalism, surface disturbance, and other depreciative behavior." The wording of that statement
is much more buffered than the statements made by environmental activist organizations and
even more moderate groups such as the Sierra Club.
Registration and Regulations
Many states have begun to push for mandatory ATV registration similar to the required
registration of cars, much to the dismay of ATV-rights enthusiasts, who want no regulation at all.
A bi-partisan group of state representatives in AZ have begun to push for mandatory ATV
registration, which would cost $20-$25 annually, and the fees would pay to restore and rebuild
damages from ATV's, as well as funding law enforcement and education. The registration would
also serve as a leverage against illegal activities. This coalition also includes off-roading groups,
which may increase its potential for success
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/blog/arizona-pushes-mandatory-atv-registration, April 18, 2008).
Resistance From ORV Owners
As the destruction from ORV's concentrates, more people are realizing there is an immediate
need to intervene and get active. Public protests against ORV's and their destruction are
becoming more common, yet there is still a significant lobby presence attempting to keep ORV's
in autonomy, much as gun owners fight regulation. Catherine Kozak (March 2008) reports that
1,500 off-road vehicle owners rallied a war cry at an organized protest in North Carolina,
claiming they were victims of malfeasance due to environmentalists taking action to protect the
Cape Hatteras National Seashore from ORV's. ORV owners complained it was not fair to close
the island to them just for a few birds, yet the National Audubon Society and the Defenders of
Wildlife persisted with their legal actions. There is actually a great amount of hostility towards
law enforcement and environmentalists within the ORV community and thus law and land
management officers are finding the enforcement of rules upon the ORV community to be more
and more violent. In 2007, many articles about off-roading activity becoming a "monsterous
headache" for law enforcement were published. There are articles about off-road riders behaving
irresponsibly with parties and law breaking at numbers that outstrip all other violations combined
on public lands, and there are also articles about off-road communities causing "near riots" when
authorities try to enforce rules and laws on large groups of ORV owners
(http://www.peer.org/campaigns/publiclands/orv/news.php, April 18, 2008). So even if rules and
laws are instituted, the enforcement of laws in the wild is proving to be a headache.
Cooperation From Within the ATV Community
The State Environmental Resource Center has published a set of answers to the question;
"I'm an ORV user - what can I do?" They suggest the ATV user know the vehicle use
regulations for the areas they ride in, and suggest talking to the BLM, Forest Service Rangers,
and State Departments of Land before going into wilderness areas. They also ask that ATV riders
stay on existing roads, they encourage getting off ORV's to hunt, and slowing down speeds, limit
use during wet times as wet road conditions create damage faster, keep your muffler serviced,
and don't widen single-track trails by forcing your ORV down the trail
(http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html, April 18, 2008).
ORV Management Activism
Wildlands CPR is a national conservation group that specifically targets off-road vehicle
abuse of public lands, while actively promoting wildland restoration and road removal. Their
membership includes hunters, hikers, cross-country skiers, photographers, business owners,
anglers, scientists, students, teachers, parents and others. Wildlands CPR has been successful in
pressuring the Park Service to control ORV use, reducing 23,000 miles of renegade tracks to 400
miles of designated routes in Big Cyprus National Preserve. They have also trained thousands of
volunteers to keep inventories of roads, ORV use, etc. (http://www.wildlandscpr.org/, April 18,
2008).
Bluewater Network is an organization working "to protect public land resources from damage
caused by rampant and irresponsible use of off-road vehicles." Bluewater Network has partnered
with more than 60 environmental groups to pressure the National Park Service "to keep ORV's
on main roads and away from sensitive wildlife, exotic vegetation, and priceless cultural
monuments." In 2004, Bluewater Network organized the composition of a letter written by
artists, photographers and business owners, and sent it to the Park Service, asking that they rein
in out of control ORV activities. In the last decade, Bluewater Network has helped secure
protection from ORV's at the Apostle Islands National Shoreline, the Big Cypress National
Preserve and Cape Hatteras National Seashore
(http://www.bluewaternetwork.org/campaign_pl_offroad.shtml, April 18, 2008).
Another activist organization working to rein in ATV activity is the California Wilderness
Coalition. One of their main points of contention revolves around an 1860's mining law that
claims old jeep trails, cow paths, washed out routes, etc., are "public highways." By calling these
abandoned trails "roads," they are opened up to oil, gas, mining and other corporate activities
that exploit public land. The presence of said entities historically clouds the governmental
decisions about the best use of America's lands, and thus the issue of right of way and olden
trails is important. This organization is working to create public pressure on officials to protect
thousands of miles claimed by ATV users as "right of way highways" in the Mojave National
Preserve, Giant Sequoia National Monument, Death Valley National Park, the King Range
National Conservation Area, the Siskiyou Wilderness, and many other parks and wilderness
areas overseen by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the US Forest Service, and the
National Park Service. This organization also recognizes that the Bush administration has been
hostile to environmentalists across the board, and the issue of preserving national lands from
ATV destruction seems to elude him and his administration. California has more than 5,000
"highways" across the Mojave desert due to this right of way "highway" definition, and groups,
including this one, are desperately crying out for public education and action on this issue
(http://www.calwild.org/campaigns/rs2477.php, April 18, 2008).
In rural Utah, a small town named Escalante, has refused $43,500 in state funds that were
requested by and granted to local ORV users, to build an ORV park in their area. The town cited
environmental impact and highway safety, among other reasons for declining the grant monies.
Wildlands CPR has been active in the support of this small town's refusal of these funds
(http://www.wildlandscpr.org/our-news/rural-utah-town-refuses-orv-funds-0, April 18, 2008).
The State Environmental Resource Center has published a set of answers to the question;
"I'm a concerned citizen - what can I do?" They suggest reporting violations you witness
regarding ORV's in areas they should not be in, and also reporting illegal ORV routes, as well as
joining local task forces to monitor ATV activities and they recommend starting such a watchdog
organization if one does not exist in your area
(http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html, April 18, 2008).
Conclusion
With the steep rise in numbers of privately owned ATV's and the limited amount of public
land available, there will need to be negotiations for shared uses of these lands, especially when
some recreational activities create marked increases in environmental destruction compared to
others. Hiking is destructive to our public lands, but the destruction done by hikers' feet is small
compared to the destruction by 4 wheeled vehicles with motor power. We are just beginning to
see legislation for regulation of ATV's, against the will of the ATV community and industry, and
that legislation and regulation is long overdue.
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Bureau of Land Management. (2008). Bureau of Land Management. http://www.blm.gov/ (April 18, 2008).
California Parks Department. (2008). http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24576 (April 18, 2008).
California Wilderness Coalition. (2008). California Wilderness Coalition. http://www.calwild.org (April 18, 2008).
Donahue, S. (2008, Spring). Why Didn't the Bear Cross the Road? http://www.wildlandscpr.org/biblio-notes/why-didnt-bear-cross-road-review-recent-literature-examining-effects-roads-bears (April 18, 2008).
Kozak, C. (March 23, 2008). About 1,500 Rally to Save Off-Road-Vehicle Privileges in N.C. http://hamptonroads.com/2008/03/about-1500-rally-save-offroadvehicle-privileges (April 18, 2008).
Off-Road Wreckrecreation. (2008). Off-Road Vehicles and the Environment Article Collection. http://www.peer.org/campaigns/publiclands/orv/news.php (April 19, 2008).
State Environmental Resource Center. (2008). State Environmental Resource Center. http://www.serconline.org/orv/pkg_frameset.html (April 18, 2008).
Sierra Club. (2008). Sierra Club ORV Page. http://www.sierraclub.org/wildlands/orv (April 18, 2008).
Switalski, A. (2007). The Influence of Snowmobile Emissions on Air Quality and Human Health. http://www.wildlandscpr.org/biblio-notes/infl-uence-snowmobile-emissions-air-quality-and-human-health (April 18, 2008).
Kirsten Anderberg. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint/publish, please contact Kirsten at kirstena@resist.ca.